Should HPV Vaccination Be Mandatory Research Paper

Should HPV Vaccination Be Mandatory - Research Paper Example Researchers indicate that cervical cancer is more prevalent in women at a younger age. However, mandatory vaccination for cervical cancer can cause a series of consequences. This paper will discuss why young girls should not be given mandatory vaccination for preventing cervical cancer. The HPV vaccination was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration recently in 2006 and therefore its long term effects are still unknown to the world. Ashton reveals that the effects of HPV vaccination can lead to fatal motor accidents and suicides. According to the US Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System, a number of adverse side effects including pancreatitis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, and spinal cord inflammation have been reported since the approval of the vaccine. â€Å"Although these adverse reactions may be rare, they are not worth the risk since the vaccine only protects against two of the 15 strains of HPV that may cause cancer of the cervix† (â€Å"Should any vaccines be required for children?.†). There are also some doubts about the effectiveness of this vaccine because it was tested only on 1,100 girls; and this number is insufficient to get a clear picture of the vaccine’s ‘functionability’. Researchers have identified that aroun d 15 types of genital HPV out of 30 are likely to lead to cervical cancer. However, the Gardasil provides coverage against only two of the 15 and therefore it cannot be considered as an effective vaccine to HPV. Hence, this vaccine provides coverage against only some limited viral strains. Evidently, the US government has not done adequate researches to explore the long term impacts of such a mandate. Since its long term implications still remain to be unknown, the mandatory vaccination is more likely to lead to additional health issues. In other words, the US government risks the public backlash through the mandatory HPV vaccination. Obviously, the HPV vaccination must not be mandated before its long term side effects are clearly identified. Ethically, parents have the ultimate right to make health decisions for their children and therefore the government should not intervene in those decisions. According to a survey conducted by the University of Michigan, 31% of parents do not su pport mandatory school entry vaccinations (â€Å"Should any vaccines be required for children?.†). They hold the view that they must have the authority to refuse such vaccinations. Many of the US parents hold the view that the process of vaccination is religiously wrong. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees citizens to freely exercise their religious belief. Hence, the forcible vaccination would violate the first Amendment. Similarly, this mandatory vaccination policy gives exception to boys and hence it can be considered as the direct violation of constitutional principles of equity. Forcible enforcement of mandatory HPV vaccination would result in public backlash and this situation may adversely affect childhood vaccine programs for other diseases. Many people strongly argue in favor of the proposal by pointing to other mandatory vaccinations against measles and smallpox. They ask why it is necessary to give exception to mandatory HPV vaccination while practicing mandatory vaccination against several other diseases. Here, it must be noted that the HPV is not airborne and sexual contact is the major cause of cervical cancer. The government has a potential motive to protect its people from a deadly airborne virus because

The Connection Between Urbanisation And Pollution Essay

The Connection Between Urbanisation And Pollution - Essay Example In fact, humans have become too dependent on technology as life uncovers day by day. Due to high capacity of human to think and because of their growing needs as population also increases, major places on earth have become so congested and it further resulted to unnecessary processes with major impacts for the society in general. In this paper, the proponent tries to examine the link between urbanisation and pollution. In doing so, the proponent tries to define first the basic concepts of urbanisation and pollution. What is urbanisation? The presented classic definition of urbanisation is a process by which people and their increasing population densely occupy urban areas or towns (Ohngren, 1981). Urbnisation therefore is a process that tries to consider the need of the society for development based on the human standard and needs. Witherick (1999) emphasises that urbanisation is a process but it constitutes some important changes particularly in line with the economy, population dis tribution, change of the way of life, settlement’s sizes and character change. This only emphasises the fact that there are major changes and shift from an ordinary way of living to another level. This is what concerns the population in general because behind all these changes are impacts that require substantial considerations. What is pollution? The vast changes on earth which some of them resulted to pollution are eventually products of human activities (Hill, 2010). Hill focused on environmental pollutions as eventual results of human activities on earth. Pollution comes in wide range and faces. However, when one hears about pollution what comes to mind first are results of human activities since nature by itself is capable of maintaining the needed balance. However, all those activities done by humans are responsible for the destruction of such balance in nature and which eventually result at some point to environmental pollution. This is what Hill would like to emphasiz e that humans are capable of destroying the balance of nature in order to obtain the needs and wants of the society as in line with the contexts of political, economical, social, technological, legal and environmental considerations. Pollution is everywhere around the globe and it can be in different forms. It can be classified as air, water or land pollution. These pollutions are of varying degrees and most of them are results of industrial revolution from the past and at recent sophistication of our time. The use of technology finds ways for its further development and such also results to creation of things that pave way to environmental pollution. The global warming is said to be an impact of industrial revolution since such is said to be due to the polluted atmosphere with green house gases emitted by technologically advanced society. Pollution such as emission of green house gases is said to be on its fast pace especially in highly industrialised or developed countries. The Un ited States for instance is said to be among of the major countries with high contribution of emitted green house gases such as carbon dioxide due to the nature of its industry. This therefore has an important implication that cities are among of the top contributors of pollution on earth. Thus, this leads to further understanding of the existing relationship between the incident of pollution and urbanisation. These two are processes but at some point, the former is said to be the result of the latter. Pollution as an impact of urbanisation Political, social and economic aspects of a nation are interrelated to its physical environment because of the presence of potential human actions in every day (Middleton, 2008). One of the most important connections

The Women In Love Essay

The Women In Love Essay Women in Love is a novel about two young ladies, the Brangwen sisters, Urusula and Gudrun and how they fall in love and lead two completely different relationships with the men they meet, Rupert Birkin and Gerald Crich, with who they gradually fall in love. Birkin, a school inspector, visits Ursula who teaches at the school however Hermione, the woman previously involved with Birkin, intrudes on their conversation and invites Ursula and Gudrun to stay with her in Breadalby. Ursula and Gudrun travel to Breadalby to stay with Hermione where Gerald officially meets the two. He saw them again, while they were at home waiting for the train to pass. This sets an awful impression of Gerald to the sisters as he was torturing a horse, training her to withstand the fear. The Brangwen sisters then see Gerald again, whilst sketching along side Wiley Water. He was with Hermione who caused commotion between Gudrun and Gerald after dropping her sketchbook in the water. In the meantime, Ursula had wandered off towards the hill where she met Birkin sawing and hammering away. This was the first sign of a relationship between the two and he eventually sent a note to invite the sisters to tea. Feeling desire for Birkin to speak only to her, she didnt tell Gudrun about the invite where they discuss the concepts of love and their feelings. The couple met again at Mr. Crichs annual water-party on the lake. Gerald organises a small boat for Gudrun and Ursula who row to a little stream. After hours on end, the men arrive in worry. The four begin to row back to the estate but Geralds sister, Diana, drowns causing grief for the Crichs. Gudrun then becomes the teacher of Geralds youngest sister, Winifred. There relationship was a tight bond and soon she moves into a studio which was built for the two girls. After many thought and consideration, Birkin visits the Brangwens to ask for Ursulas hand in marriage however Birkin left without an answer. Enraged, he walks to Shortlands where he finds Gerald. Ursula then meets with Hermione who belittles Birkin and encourages Ursula not to marry him. Birkin then buys Ursula three rings which leads her to agreeing to marriage. Mr. Crich sadly then passes away and after the funeral, in devastation Gerald spends the night with Gudrun. Gerald then thinks about marrying Gudrun and he suggests for the four to travel to the Tyrol although Birkin and Ursula left early to Verona. Gerald is infuriated by Gudruns verbal abuse and her refusal of his manhood as well as Loerke who Gudrun begins a friendship with. On the slopes, Gerald strangles Gudrun yet let go when Loerke called for him. Gerald continued up the slope but he slipped and fell and immediately went to sleep. His body was returned to England to be buried, together with Ursula and Birkin. Gudrun went to Dresden to visit Loerke. The impact of Geralds death on Birkin was inevitable, he loved him just as much as he loved Urusla however Ursula could not understand this. Narrative Style This novel is written in third person singular with an omniscient style. It pleased Ursula, what he said, pleased her very much. She herself knew too well the actuality of humanity, its hideous actually. The pronouns he and she are frequently used and characters are continuously addressed by their names. Character Analysis Ursula: is an independent, strong-willed lady who doesnt enjoy being told what to do. She likes to make her own decisions, no matter what the situation. This is shown through the conversation held between, herself, her father and Birkin when he proposes to her; You both want me to force me into something That is an illusion of your own. She also needs certainty to make those decisions which is shown through her constant questioning of if Birkin loves her. She is reliable for Birkin as she devotes her everything to him however she seems to misunderstand the importance of a relationship between the men and seems she is jealous that Birkin doesnt only need her. Gudrun: is a very kind and compassionate woman as she takes the time and effort to sit with Winifred and paint. Her loving character is shown when she feels uneasy about telling Winifred that her dad will die when asked what she thinks. She isnt a trustworthy person as she leaves Gerald for Loerke in the Alps and feels what Gerald and she had, was over although Gerald didnt feel this way. Birkin: has an aspect of a true gentleman. This is shown through his love and devotion to Ursula because he states that he doesnt want to serve him; I who am at the beck and call of the woman, than she at mine. His love for Ursula and Gerald also shows that he can maintain love with romance and love with friendship; eternal union with a man too: another kind of love. Gerald: is a determined man as he has hope that his sister was still alive when he tries to save her and he never gives up. These experiences made Gerald the strong, determined man he was, as he had suffered of loss of those close to him. However he is not independent as when his father passes away he finds himself at the graveyard then walks to Gudruns house seeking comfort and affection. Gerald is also a proud character as he is proud of his estate that his father owns and doesnt let the past affect his present. Language Diction Women in Love is a very descriptive novel that uses both short and long sentences. The language is highly developed and long sentences are used to describe feelings and objects, for example; And Gerald, watching, saw the amazing attractive goodliness of his eyes, a young, spontaneous goodness that attracted the other man infinitely, yet filled him with bitter chagrin, because he mistrusted it so much. Short sentences are used more often during dialogue such as; I see, and I must remember another time. In this novel the author also uses similes for instance; The mare rebounded like a drop of water from hot iron and Yet he seemed as calm as a ray of cold sunshine. There are also French and German phrases during dialogue for example; Ist er auch ein Wunder? and Quest ce quun chancelier?. Imagery The imagery is evident throughout the novel because all stimuli are aroused. Tactile imagery is evident when Ursula and Birkin have admitted their love for one another; She cleaved to him, and he could feel his blood changing like quicksilver. One can imagine how faster his blood was pumping now that Ursula lay closer towards him. Taste and sense of smell are linked with the description of the meal provided; venison pasty, a large broad-faced cut ham, eggs and cresses. Visual imagery is foreseen throughout the novel when the statuette is explain; it was a woman, with hair dressed high, like a melon-shaped dome à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with such protuberant buttocks, so weighty and unexpected below her slim long loins. Auditory imagery is evident when Geralds voice startles Gudrun for example; The timbre of his voice, like something vibrating at a high pitch, unnerved Gudrun. Themes Marriage is a theme shown through Ursula and Gudrun when it is first mentioned at the beginning of the novel. This theme is revealed throughout the novel as their relationships continue to build which gradually leads to a proposal by Birkin to Ursula. A theme of religion is also apparent throughout the novel by Mr. Crich as he is related to God often and speaks of being a Christian. Another theme present is individual versus society as Ursula, Gudrun, Birkin and Gerald are often deeply concerned with the questions of society and the relationships between men and women. This theme is shown through Birkin and Ursulas conversation how one must devote themselves to one another as Birkin believes love can reach further and past heaven. Setting This novel is set in England, this is evident because of the places mentioned such as London, Oxford, Beldover and Piccadilly Circus. It is also represented throughout the relation to the currency for example; Three-hapence, pennies and Hundreds of pounds. The setting is also shown through certain objects such as The Daily Telegraph, a popular newspaper in England as well as lawn rather than garden. Genre The genre is romance as love is such a deep and dominant theme throughout the novel. The genre starts with the when Gudrun and Ursula Brangwen discuss their feelings towards marriage. It is encouraged throughout the novel by Gudrun and Gerald falling in love and Ursula and Birkin getting married. It is also shown through Birkin and Geralds friendship as Birkin finds their friendship the perfect relationship with a man. Aspects I liked I enjoyed the fact that Mr. Crich had such a strong will to stay alive, he made time and effort for the ones he loved dearly such as his daughter Winifred. He also said to Winifred that he was better whenever he asked, meanwhile they both knew the truth. However I didnt emjoy the fact that Hermione belittled Birkin whilst talking to Ursula, she encourages Ursula not to marry Birkin because of her jealousy over their relationship. Hermoine wanted with Birkin what Urusla has and she belittles Birkin to alter Ursulas feelings but Ursula ignores Hermoines comments and continues to feel the love she has for Birkin. Recommendations I would recommend this novel to one who enjoys an emotional relationship which encounters tension commonly because of love and the meaning it implies. I would also recommend this novel to one who shares a relationship with God as one of the characters shares a strong relationship with God; He wanted to be a pure Christian, one and equal with all men. He even wanted to give away all he had, to the poor. Throughout the novel, God is often referred to which is why I would recommend this novel to a Christian. I would recommend this novel to a person who enjoys strong willed characters who are strained with their sensitivity.

An Interpretation of Emily Dickinsons Poem I Felt a Funeral in My Brain :: Dickinson I Felt a Funeral, in My Brain Essays

An Interpretation of Emily Dickinson's Poem I Felt a Funeral in My Brain Emily Dickinson was a reclusive individual that was rarely seen by anyone outside of her immediate family and few close friends. This solitude emerges in her poetry in the form of doom and gloom depictions. Dickinson seems to have a fascination with death as if death is a friendly character rather than a horrible image. It has been stated that Dickinson's obsession with death was a sign to others around her and her readers that she was struggling internally. In the poem "I Felt a Funeral in My Brain" Dickinson seems to be describing a delusion of a person that is contemplating what will happen to him/her when he/she dies. This poem also seems to be an affirmation of heaven and hell and a personal battle within the narrator to come to terms with his/her own mortal existence. In the first stanza Dickinson describes "feeling a funeral in her brain". This could be a metaphor for her own personal death and the reference to "sense breaking through" tells the reader that only through death can a person ever understand and/or value life. This could be viewed as a retrospection on the narrators life and a telling poem about where she was at in her existance around this period of time. If this interpretation is justified then in stanza two the funeral proceeds with the narrator hating to be there as she/he says: "And when they all were seated, A Service, like a Drum- Kept beating-beating-till I thought My Mind was going numb-" This stanza shows that the narrator is still bored with the living world even in death. The third stanza continues the theme of a struggle between heaven and hell in the last line when the narrator states, "Then space-began to toll". This reference to a bell tolling, or time running out seems to suggest the impending judgment for the narrator. Heaven is discussed in the forth stanza and compared to a bell: "As all the Heavens were a Bell And Being, but an Ear, And I, and Silence, some strange race

The Catcher in the Rye and The Outsider novels hold

The Catcher In the Rye are both among the most important novels of the twentieth century. The modern world's general moral change and the individual's alienation from the society serve as the main, basic topic for both novels which is still relevant to any twenty first century reader. Since many people find themselves in the same position of feeling like an outsider from society In their own worlds, I intend to outline how It still finds relevance today.Both characters, Meursault and Holden Caulfield share the same sense that they are lienated from the worlds in which they live in which is important to a twenty first century reader as many people have problems assimilating themselves into society. Like Holden, teens today also resist conforming to society's norms as is also highlighted in The Stranger with the protagonist Meursault. Salinger chooses to narrate his novel so that the novel that depicts his protagonist, Holden's, transition from adolescence to adulthood.In contrast, Cam us writes his novel In order to record the events leading up to, and the last days before, the execution of his main character, Meursault. Through the employment of settings, characterisation and endings, both authors imply that society's pressure on the individual to fit in plays a major part in both of these climaxes, this has huge importance to any twenty first century reader as the topic Is still challenged in todays society. Both characters Meursault and Holden Caulfield suggest that society pressures individuals to fit in and conform to.Holden is a teenager struggling with the fact that everyone has to grow up, which to him means that you have to become â€Å"phony' or corrupt. Holden distances himself from the adult world and so to stay a child he gets imself expelled from schools. While on the other hand Meursault does things for no real reason. He is completely aloof, unattached and almost an unemotional person. He does not think much about events or their consequences, no r does he express much feeling In relationships or during emotional times.Both of these characters express their detachment from society which is relevant for many people in the twenty first centurys society as many people find difficulty finding their place within civilization. Holden's conversational tone and choice of words Illustrates his rebellion from adult ociety as a stereotypical teenager. His frustration with adults Is characterized by his persistent use of words like â€Å"goddamn,† â€Å"puked,† â€Å"hell,† â€Å"crap,† and â€Å"moron. † When Holden describes Jane's stepfather, he talks about how he would â€Å"run around the goddamn house naked†.He continues using this word when he tells the reader how Sally was conversing with a college friend, â€Å"they continued their goddamn boring conversation†. This relates to a twenty first century teenager in particular as they also have their own language to separate themselve s from their parents such as In the ries desperately to have almost a direct conversation with the reader, aware of his audience; he attempts to impress the audience by exaggeration or repetition through a narrative tone. There is a sense that Holden wants the audience to like him as he utilizes the audience as a counsellor as outpours his ideas.This is relevant to many teenagers in the twenty first century as they try to find their place in civilization or a school society and may go to extreme lengths to find themselves and create a reputation for people to remember them by. In The Outsider, it is almost the opposite ith Meursault. Through short clinical sentences and abrupt punctuation it highlights a detached character. Instead he lists a logical thought process and lays out what he thinks, almost unaware of a reader highlighted in the opening lines, â€Å"I'll catch the two o'clock bus and get there in the afternoon.Then I can keep the vigil and I'll come back tomorrow night. I asked my boss for two days off†¦ † This almost list style of writing enables the reader from building a connection or impression to the character as there doesn't seem to be much depth to his emotions or opinions. Meursault is unlike Holden in the sense that he does not crave attention and want people to like him his actions throughout the book explain how he is a stranger to society as he cant fathom why everyone around him is so interested in his being.The story examines the uncertainty of Justice: the public official compiling the details of the murder case tells him repentance and turning to Christianity will save him, but Meursault refuses to pretend he has found religion; emotional honesty overrides self-preservation, and he accepts the idea of punishment as a consequence of his ctions as part of the status quo. The actual death of the Arab as a human being with a family is seems almost irrelevant, as Camus tells us little more about the victim beyond the fact tha t he is dead.Indeed, Meursault is never even asked to confront, reflect or comment upon the victim as anything other than as a consequence of his actions and the cause of his current predicament. The humanity of the victim and inhumanity of murdering another human being is seemingly beside the point. The book holds huge relevance to the twentieth century reader as an interesting motif in The Stranger is that of watching or observation. Camus is writing a book about our endless search for meaning: that we are all looking for a purpose in our lives.The characters of The Stranger all watch each other and the world around them. Meursault watches the world go by from his balcony. He later passively watches his own trial; the world around him is a fascination to Meursault. He keenly observes the sun, the heat, the physical geography of his surroundings. The eyes of the Jury and witnesses at his trial, finally the idea of the watching crowd, representing the eyes of ociety, as he is an out sider of the world he surrounds himself in.To conclude, both The Stranger and The Catcher in the Rye are both relevant to different people within the twenty first century society for many different reasons, but both novels were written with the same topic of how one fits into society. Due to both characters in the novels being from different age groups within society it allows them to become important to people within those same age groups today as many face the same dilemma of finding themselves an outsider within their society.

The Origins of Sociology

FK8R 34 Sociology A: Introduction to Sociology Alisha Walsh In the mid 1800’s, French author Auguste Comte came up with the term â€Å"sociology†. Although previous philosophers, historians and political thinkers had studied and tried to make sense of their societies, this was when it began to develop as a distinctive science. Comte grew up in a time of great social and political upheaval. As the world rapidly changed, he and others began to study the societies they lived in.He sought to create a science of society that could explain the laws of the social world just as science explained the functioning of the physical world. (Giddens 2006:11) Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth century political revolutions occurring throughout Europe, the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution all lead to previously unseen changes in many societies. The French Revolution of 1789 meant that monarchs of Europe came under severe scrutiny. Subjects began to question their  "divine right† to rule.Ideas of individuals’ rights and their say in how society was run emerged. Political parties and social reform quickly followed. Great scientific discoveries formed a perspective of looking to science and reason to answer questions about the natural and social world. People were turning away from the church, religion and superstition for these answers. The Industrial Revolution 1780-1800 had a profound effect on Britain and laterally Europe. Almost all aspects of life were changed as people became part of the factory system.People moved from rural areas and agricultural jobs to towns where social life was more impersonal and anonymous. They began to work by a clock instead of the rhythms of the season. Traditional values and roles were dropped as new ones evolved. To study Sociology, one must have what C. Wright Mills called a â€Å"sociological imagination†. Sociological thinking and imagination requires us to remove ourselves from our eve ryday lives and experience, and look at them differently. Only then can we realise that individual experience can actually reflect larger issues.He emphasised the difference between â€Å"personal troubles of millue† and â€Å"public issues of social structure†(Mills 2000 :5) This means that the sociological imagination allows us to see that public issues such as war, marriage, the economy, urbanisation etc, can affect the individual as well as personal circumstance and experiences. â€Å"The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two. That is its task and its promise. †(Mills 2000:2) He stated that sociologists must ask three crucial questions: What is the structure of this particular society?Where does this society stand in human history? What varieties of men and women prevail in this society and in the coming period? (Mills 200:3) He believed that as individuals these questions would help us make sens e of our own place and experience in the society we live in and identify its structures and characteristics. He also stated that â€Å"they are the questions inevitably raised by any mind possessing the sociological imagination. For that imagination is the capacity to shift form one perspective to another†.The sociological imagination allows us to be analytical and critical of the world and to look at the bigger picture. There are many sociological theories which attempt to explain how society works. They provide a framework for explaining social behaviour. They find the relation between individuals, groups and society. These theories can be put into two broad categories, macro theories and micro theories. Macro theories such as Functionalism and Marxism look to explaining behaviour through the notion of social structures and look at society holistically.Macro theories tend to use quantitive research when a social theory or model is being explored. Data has to be measurable a nd proccessed mathematically (surveys) to provide unbiased results that can be measured, compared and related to large parts of society (Amit B. Marvasti 2004:7). Micro theories such as social action and symbolic interaction look at individual behaviour and how small scale interactions shape society. Micro theories use qualitive research methods, concentrating on smaller groups but providing more detailed analysis and descriptions of human experience.The experiment can be based around a theory and results are recorded as detailed, narrative descriptions as opposed to numerical codes found in quantitive research (Amit B. Mavasti 2004:10) Functionalism analyses how social structures explain behaviour. Interdependent parts of society have to function together to create a whole system. Biological or mechanical analogies are often used. Functionalism emphasises integration, harmony, stability and continuity. It is a positive perspective that views even tragedies or inequality as serving a function in society. McClelland2001:1) It looks at society as a whole and is good at explaining the persistence of social phenomena (anomie). Marxism also focuses on social structures but is a conflict theory. Society is made up of infrastructure and superstructure. This structure is based on the inequality of distribution of production and causes conflict. It recognises different power interests in groups and is good at explaining conflict and change ( SparkNotes Editors 2006). Social Action theory emphasises the intentional behaviour of individuals as the cause of social structure.Individuals shape society as a result of intentional individual or group interaction. It concentrates on the meaning of social behaviour and its interpretation by others and is good at explaining small scale interactions. According to Anthony Giddens , good sociology must examine both social structures and social interactions. It is how a fuller understanding of social life is achieved (Giddens2005:25) . Socialization, Social order and Social Stratification are three key concepts in sociology that try to explain the relationship between the individual and society.Social order is the way in which societies’ basic requirements are met to exist, how peace and order is maintained. It is obtained formally through laws and through the use of social norms, roles and values. It involves a set of linked structures, institutions and practices that can maintain and enforce conformity and social order (Dr Almog 1998). Functionalist theory views individuals as contributing to social order by happily playing out their occupied roles within social institutions. These roles are guided by the norms and values we learn through socialization and are necessary for society to function (Dr Almog 1998).Marxist theory claims that social order is forced on the individual, norms and values are used by institutions that want to maintain capitalism. They are a way to control the working class (Giddens 2006: 301-302). Social Action theory sees social order as a product of social interactions, symbolic meanings and how they are interpreted by others. The individual is a social actor who will interpret and process social stimuli and makes choices accordingly. Socialization is a lifelong learning process and plays a crucial part in forming our identities. It is the process by which individuals learn the culture of their society† (Haralambos & Holborn 2008:3). The important stage of socialization occurs during infancy. The child learns many basic behaviour patterns of its society by responding to the approval or disapproval of their parents and also by copying their example. In western societies, the educational system, religion, the mass media, the occupational group and peer groups are also important in the socialisation process ( Haralambos & Holbor2008:3).Functionalist theory believes that socialisation reinforces the social structure and maintains society. That it is functional and beneficial to social order. It transfers culture, norms and values to new generations and integrates individuals into society. It is the social glue that holds society together and helps create a sense of harmony and cooperation (Kent McClelland 2001). Marxism sees socialization as one of the most effective tools of the Bourgeoisie.It legitimises existing social inequalities and prepares the individual for a class related role they will fill indefinitely (SparkNotes Editors 2006). Social Action theory believes socialization is relevant in relation to symbols and their interpretation, the development of social identity and the small scale interactions that shape it. Socialisation helps maintain social order (Cardiff University 2010). Social Stratification is the ranking and ordering of individuals within a society. It is a structured hierarchy which leads to divisions and higher status, wealth and privilege for some groups.Social class is the stratification system f ound in modern industrial societies like the UK, but it can also occur due to other attributes such as gender, age, religious education or military rank (Giddens 2006:295) Members of a particular strata will share a similar lifestyle and common identity which will to some extent distinguish them from members of other social strata (H & H 2008:19) A functionalist perspective of social stratification is that it is based on meritocracy and is therefore an inevitable part of all societies.Talcott Parsons believed that social stratifications are a basic expression of shared values which are an essential part of a functioning society. Social stratification is functional because it integrates various groups in society (H& H2008:21) Marxism regards stratification as a divisive structure rather than an integrated one. It is seen as a mechanism for the ruling class to exploit the subject class, rather than a means of furthering collective goals (H & H 2008:27). Various institution s such as legal and political systems are used to dominate the subject class resulting in conflict (H & H 2008:28).Social action theory focuses on how a persons’ social standing affects their everyday interactions. According to Max Webber, social stratification not only involves class but also status and party (social status and political power) (Giddens 2006:302-303). Social action theory studies the processes behind stereotypes, mixed interactions and labelling. Its notes how stratification is a way to put people in groups and questions how much power individuals in these groups have to realise their goals (Cardiff University 2010) ReferencesHaralambos & Holborn (2008) Sociology Themes and Perspectives , 7th Edition, London, Harper Collins Anthony Giddens (2006) Sociology, 5th Edition, Cambridge, Polity Press Amit B. Mavasti (2004) Qualititive Research in Sociology, London, Sage Publications Ltd C. Wright Mills (2000) The Sociological Imagination, 40th Edition, New York , Oxford University Press Inc World Wide Web Page Kent McClelland, Grinnel College 2001 Functionalism (Online) Available: web. grinnel. edu/courses/soc/s00/soc111-01/IntroTheories/Functionalism. tml SparkNotes Editors 2006 Sparknote on Sociology Major Figures (Online) Available: http://www. sparknotes. com/sociology/major-figures/ (Acceseed 31 October 2012) Dr Oz Almog, Electronic Journal of Sociology 1998 The Problem of Social Type: A Review (Online) Available:www. sociology. org/content/vol003. 004/almog. html (Accessed 31 October 2012) Angus Bancroft and Sionead Rogers, Cardiff University 2010 Max Weber-Natural Science, Social Science and Value Relevance (Online) http://www. cf. ac. uk/socsi/undergraduate/introsoc/weber6. html

Best Crucible Act 4 Summary

Best Crucible Act 4 Summary SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Act 4 gives us the exciting conclusion to this saga of madness. How are the citizens of Salem and their governing officials dealing with the fallout from the trials?Will the "witches" falsely confess to avoid execution? Does John Proctor still, like, totally hate himself? Read on to find out all this and more, including key quotes and a thematic analysis for the final act of The Crucible. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. The Crucible Act 4 Summary - Short Version Act 4 opens with Herrick removing Tituba and Sarah Good from a jail cell so the court officials can hold a meeting there.Reverend Hale and Reverend Parris are off praying with the other condemned prisoners, which is unsettling to Danforth and Hathorne. When Parris arrives at the meeting, he explains that Hale is trying to get the prisoners to confess to their crimes rather than lose their lives needlessly. He also reveals that Abigail and Mercy Lewis have run away, and they stole his life’s savings. The authorities then discuss the state of social unrest that has emerged in Salem after the jailing of so many citizens. Hathorne denies that there is any possibility of rebellion ("Why at every execution I have seen naught but high satisfaction in the town" (pg. 7)), but Parris is very concerned about what will happen if they hang people who are well-respected. Parris has already received a death threat in the form of a dagger wedged in his doorway. He advises that they postpone the hangings and continue pushing for confessions, but Danforth refuses because it would make him look bad. Hale arrives and says that he hasn’t extracted any confessions yet. The one prisoner who he hasn’t talked to is John Proctor. The officials decide that they will bring in Elizabeth Proctor to speak with him and convince him to confess. Elizabeth and John are left alone, and Elizabeth informs John of Giles Corey’s death. Giles was pressed to death with heavy stones since he refused to plead guilty or innocent to the charges of witchcraft. John begs her to tell him whether or not he should confess. He’s leaning towards confessing because he doesn’t think very much of himself and feels his soul is already beyond redemption. He asks for Elizabeth’s forgiveness, but she says her forgiveness doesn’t mean anything if he won’t forgive himself. She also places some blame on herself for the way things went down with Abigail. She tells him that only he can decide whether or not to confess. John tentatively agrees to confess, but he refuses to name any names and then is reluctant to sign the confession. He decides he can’t go through the rest of his life after signing his name into disgrace in this permanent way. He snatches the signed paper away at the last minute and rips it to shreds, thus sealing his fate. Rebecca Nurse and John are then led off to the gallows by Marshal Herrick. The others beg Elizabeth to convince him to reconsider, but she refuses to deprive him of this choice when it’s clearly the only way he can break free from his self-hatred. "Ain't nobody dope as me I'm dressed so fresh so clean" -John Proctor at the end of The Crucible The Crucible Act 4 Summary - "Oops, I Didn't Read It" Version This act takes place in a jail cell in Salem.Marshal Herrick wakes up the occupants, Sarah Good and Tituba, to move them to a different cell.The two women speak of their plans to fly away to Barbados after the Devil comes for them and transforms them into bluebirds.They mistake the bellowing of a cow for the arrival of Satan to carry them away (could've happened to anyone).Herrick ushers them out of the cell as Tituba calls to the Devil to take her home. Once they leave, Danforth, Hathorne, and Cheever enter the cell, and Herrick returns to join their meeting. Danforth is disturbed to learn from Herrick that Reverend Hale has been praying with the prisoners. Reverend Parris is also supposed to meet with Danforth and Hathorne, so Herrick goes to get him.Apparently, Parris is praying with Reverend Hale and Rebecca Nurse.It turns out that Parris told Herrick to allow Hale to see the prisoners. Danforth is concerned that Parris is acting weird.Hathorne mentions Parris has had looked a little crazed lately and thinks it might not be wise to allow him amongst the prisoners.He said good morning to Parris a few days earlier, but Parris just started crying and walked away.Hathorne is worried about Parris appearing this unstable since he’s supposed to be the town’s spiritual leader.Cheever says he thinks Parris’ distress is a product of the ongoing property disputes in town.Abandoned cows are wandering all over the place because their owners are in jail.Parris has been arguing with farmers about who gets to claim these cows for days, and he doesn’t handle conflict well, so it makes him upset.Parris finally enters the cell, looking haggard.Danforth and Hathorne immediately criticize him for letting Hale speak with the prisoners.Parris says Hale is trying to persuade the prisoners to return to God and save their lives by confessing.Danforth is surprised, but he welcomes this news. Parris then reveals why he called this meeting with the court officials.Abigail and Mercy Lewis disappeared a few days before.Parris says he thinks they’ve boarded a ship, and they stole his entire life’s savings to pay for passage.He’s been upset lately because he’s completely broke.Danforth is exasperated and calls Parris a fool.Parris says that the next town over, Andover, rejected the witch trial trend and threw out the court, whichhas sparked the beginnings of a rebellion in Salem.Abigail most likely left for fear that people in Salem might turn against her. Hathorne doesn’t buy into the idea that a rebellion is fomenting in Salem because the town has been supportive of the executions so far.Parris points out that this is because all of the people who have been executed up until now had bad reputations for other reasons (Bridget Bishop lived with a man before marrying him, Isaac Ward's alcoholism left his family in poverty).Now they’re about to hang Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor, people who are still well-liked and respected in the community.That’s not going to sit well with many of the townspeople.Parris advises Danforth to postpone the hangings so he and Hale can continue to push for confessions and avoid social unrest.Danforth is adamant that everything will proceed as planned.Parris reveals that he has received a death threat and fears for his life if they don't postpone the executions. Hale enters the cell, saddened and exhausted, and says he hasn’t been able to get anyone to confess.He begs Danforth to pardon the prisoners or at least give him more time to bring them around.Danforth insists he can’t pardon anyone or postpone the hangings. Twelve people have already been hung for the same crime. Pardon or postponementwould be unfair and, what’s worse, it would make him look weak. John Proctor is the only prisoner Hale hasn’t spoken to yet.The officials decide to summon Elizabeth Proctor to see if she will speak to her husband and persuade him to confess.Hale keeps pushing Danforth to postpone the executions, arguing that it would show that he is merciful rather than weak, but Danforth won’t change his mind.Hale points out that society in Salem is on the verge of collapsing because of the upheaval caused by the trials.Danforth asks Halewhy he has even bothered to return to Salem, and Hale says it’s because he can’t live with the part he played in condemning innocent people to death.There will be less blood on his hands if he can get them to confess. Elizabeth Proctor is led into the cell. Hale begs her to convince her husband to confess.He says it’s better to tell a white lie than to sacrifice a life for pride, but Elizabeth is not convinced("I think that be the Devil's argument." (pg. 122)).She agrees to speak with her husband, but she doesn’t promise to persuade him to confess. A raggedJohn Proctor is escorted in by Marshal Herrick, and he and Elizabeth are left alone.Elizabeth reveals to John that many people have confessed to witchcraft, but Giles Corey refused to plead one way or the other on the charges leveled against him.He was pressed to death by his interrogators, but his sons will inherit his farm (his property would have been publicly auctioned off if he officially died a criminal). Proctor has been contemplating making a confession, and he asks Elizabeth what she thinks he should do.He feels he has already committed so many sins that it’s stupid for him to bother holding up his integrity on this one point.John says he has only refrained from confessing out of spite, not nobility.He asks for Elizabeth’s forgiveness.She says he needs to forgive himself first, and her forgiveness doesn’t mean much if he still feels he’s a bad person. She blames herself for pushing him into Abigail’s arms and says he shouldn’t take responsibility for her issues as well. Hathorne returns to the jail cell.Elizabeth tells John that he has to make his own choice on whether or not to confess.John says he chooses to have his life, and Hathorne assumes this means he will confess.John asks Elizabeth what she would do, but his question ends up being rhetorical. He knows she would never give into the pressure and lie.However, he still hates himself and thinks he’s not good enough to die a martyr. Danforth, Parris, Cheever, and Hale return and start questioning Proctor so they can write down his confession.John begins to confess, but he falters when Rebecca Nurse is led into the cell and expresses her disappointment.John refuses to name any names of other people he’s seen with the Devil, and Danforth becomes frustrated.Hale manages to persuade Danforth to accept this and allow John to sign the confession as-is.John balks at actually signing his name to the confession.He finally does so, but then he snatches the signed paper away.He doesn’t want to be held up by the court as an example to other prisoners. John says he can’t bring himself to bind his name to such a shameful lie.Danforth is incensed and insists that the document must be an honest confession, or Proctor will hang.Proctor tears up his confession.He finally decides he does have some decency within him, and it will be manifested in this final sacrifice.Danforth orders the hangings to commence.Parris and Hale beg Elizabeth to convince John to reconsider as John and Rebecca are led off to the gallows.Elizabeth refuses; she realizes that this is what John needs to do.He’d rather die with dignity than live in shame, and she respects his choice. Yeah do whatever you want John. Honestly, I don't know why you didn't just tell them you're pregnant too - these guys will believe anything. The Crucible Act 4Quotes In this section, I'll list a few of the most important quotes in Act 4 and explain why they matter. â€Å"Oh, it be no Hell in Barbados. Devil, him be pleasure-man in Barbados, him be singin’ and dancin’ in Barbados. It’s you folks - you riles him up ‘round here; it be too cold ‘round here for that Old Boy.†Tituba, pg. 3 This is probably the most substantive line spoken by Tituba in the play.She recognizes the culture in Salem as overly repressive and conceives of â€Å"the Devil† in a different light.The Devil is not an evil presence; he represents freedom from the bonds of a society that forces people to deny their humanity constantly.Tituba feels that the Devil is provoked into mischief by the hypocrisy of the citizens of Salem. â€Å"Postponement now speaks a floundering on my part; reprieve or pardon must cast doubt upon the guilt of them that died till now. While I speak God’s law, I will not crack its voice with whimpering. If retaliation is your fear, know this - I should hang ten thousand that dared to rise against the law, and an ocean of salt tears could not melt the resolution of the statutes.† Danforth, pg. 9-120 This quote provides deeper insight into Danforth’s character and state of mind.He feels that he can’t postpone the hangings now because he may be seen as weak and indecisive.He definitely can’t pardon the prisoners because people might suspect mistakes were also made in past convictions.Every person brought in by the trials and convicted must receive an equally harsh punishment, or Danforth’s reputation will be decimated.He is so authoritarian that he would hang ten thousand people who objected to a law without stopping to consider whether this big of an uprising could indicate major flaws in the law itself. Danforth is dependent on this concept of the infallibility of the law because it allows him to maintain control. â€Å"I came into this village like a bridegroom to his beloved, bearing gifts of high religion; the very crowns of holy law I brought, and what I touched with my bright confidence, it died; and where I turned the eye of my great faith, blood flowed up. Beware, Goody Proctor - cleave to no faith where faith brings blood. It is mistaken law that leads you to sacrifice. Life, woman, life is God’s most precious gift; no principle, however glorious, may justify the taking of it. I beg you, woman, prevail upon your husband to confess. Let him give his lie. Quail not before God’s judgement in this, for it may well be God damns a liar less than he that throws his life away for pride.† Reverend Hale, 122 Hale is a disillusioned shell of the man he was at the beginning of the play.He initially felt that he was bringing enlightenment to Salem, but he inadvertently brought destruction instead.His good intentions rooted in a strong faith led to the loss of innocent lives.Hale argues that throwing away one’s life, even if it’s done in adherence to God’s commandments, leaves a darker moral stain on the world than giving a false confession.This advice is largely an effort to assuage his guilt about the situation. He won’t be able to live with himself if all these people die because of his mistakes. â€Å"Let them that never lied die now to keep their souls. It is pretense for me, a vanity that will not blind God nor keep my children out of the wind.† John Proctor, 126 John is convinced that he is not worthy of dying as a martyr because he has already lied and committed immoral acts in his life.He feels his soul beyond saving, so he should stop acting all virtuous and just confess.There is no point in remaining honest if he is already going to Hell with or without this false confession. At least if he lives, he can continue to provide for his kids and postpone an unpleasant afterlife. â€Å"Because it is my name! Because I cannot have another in my life! Because I lie and sign myself to lies! Because I am not worth the dust on the feel of them that hang! How may I live without my name? I have given you my soul; leave me my name!† John Proctor, pg. 133 Proctor has this outburst after he snatches his signed confession away from Danforth.He can’t bring himself to permanently sacrifice his reputation by signing the confession. He feels his self-loathing and inevitable suffering in the afterlife is punishment enough (â€Å"I have given you my soul†). He can’t stomach the idea of also being defined by his confession in the eyes of society and history.He knows his name will forever be associated with cowardice and a lack of integrity. â€Å"He have his goodness now. God forbid I take it from him!† Elizabeth Proctor, pg. 134 Elizabeth refuses to dissuade John from revoking his confession.She can see that he has achieved freedom from his own self-loathing through this final truthful act.If she persuades him to return and confess, she might as well not save his life at all because he will feel so utterly worthless after throwing away this last bit of integrity. John's destruction of his confession is similar to ripping up a check and throwing it in someone's face when they offer to pay off your debts just to show that their power over you. In both cases, for better or for worse, pride wins out over self-preservation. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Act 4 Thematic Analysis Here's a list of the major themes that are expressed in Act 4 along with some short explanations and analyses. Irony Danforth makes a few ironic statements in Act 4 as he interrogates Elizabeth and John.In observing Elizabeth’s lack of emotion when he asks her to help them convince John to confess, he says â€Å"A very ape would weep at such calamity! Have the Devil dried up any tear of pity in you?† (pg. 123)He is shocked that she isn't acting more upset even though he has shown no remorse for condemning people to death throughout the play. In fact, he expressed his viewpoint that "I should hang ten thousand that dared to rise against the law, and an ocean of salt tears could not melt the resolution of the statutes" (pg. 120).He can't understand why Elizabeth doesn't fall apart and beg her husband to confess because he doesn't grasp the idea that an action can be legally prudent but morally distasteful. Later in Act 4, Danforth becomes angry at the implication that John’s confession may not be the truth.He says â€Å"I am not empowered to trade your life for a lie† (Danforth pg. 130). This is an example of tragic irony because Danforthhas been trading people’s lives for lies this whole time. He has sentenced numerous people to death based on lies about their dealings in black magic, and he has accepted the false confessions of those who would rather lie than be executed. Hysteria Though there is less evidence of hysteria in this act, Danforth, for one, is still very much caught up in the â€Å"WWIIIIIITTTTCHHHH† mindset.As John gives his confession, Danforth says to Rebecca Nurse â€Å"Now, woman, you surely see it profit nothin’ to keep this conspiracy any further. Will you confess yourself with him?† (pg. 129).He remains convinced that everyone is guilty. Danforth also becomes frustrated with Proctor when he won’t name names in his confession: â€Å"Mr. Proctor, a score of people have already testified they saw [Rebecca Nurse] with the Devil† (pg. 130). Danforth is convinced that John knows more about the Devil's dealings than he has revealed. Though Rebecca Nurse's involvement has already been corroborated by other confessors, Danforth demands to hear it from John. This testimony will confirm that John is fully committed to renouncing his supposed ties to Satan. Reputation As the hysteria over the witch trials dies down, it becomes apparent that the reputations of the accused continue to influence how they are treated as prisoners.Parris begs Danforth to postpone the executions of John and Rebecca because they’re so well-respected that he’s received death threats for going along with their hangings.He says, â€Å"I would to God it were not so, Excellency, but these people have great weight yet in the town† (pg. 8). However, Danforth’s own reputation as a strong judge hangs in the balance, and he dares not damage it by getting all wishy-washy. â€Å"Postponement now speaks a floundering on my part; reprieve or pardon must cast doubt upon the guilt of them that died till now. While I speak God’s law, I will not crack its voice with whimpering† (pg. 9). John Proctor’s concern for his reputation also plays a role in the events of Act 4. He goes to the gallows instead of providing a false confession because he realizes his life won't be worth living if he publicly disgraces himself in this way:â€Å"How may I live without my name? I have given you my soul; leave me my name!† (pg. 133). Power and Authority In Act 4, many of the power structures that were in place earlier in the play have broken down or become meaningless.Though the judges and reverends technically still hold official positions of authority, Reverend Parris has been subjected to death threats, and Salem as a whole seems to be in complete disarray.The judges now have little respect for Parris ("Mr. Parris, you are a brainless man!" pg. 7), who has become weak and vulnerable following the loss of his life's savings. The prisoners have lost what little faith they had in the earthly authority figures who have failed them, and they look towards the judgment of God.John ultimately realizes the only power he has left is in refusing to confess and preserving his integrity.As Elizabeth says to him, â€Å"There be no higher judge under Heaven than Proctor is!† (pg. 127). In steadfastly refusing to confess,Rebecca Nurse ends up holding onto a significant amount of power. The judges cannot force her to commit herself to a lie, and her sacrifice will deal a serious blow to their legitimacy. Guilt Several characters are still dealing with intense guilt at the end of The Crucible.After quitting the court in Act 3, Hale did some self-reflection and decided to return to Salem to advise the accused witches to confess.His rationalization is that encouraging people to lie to save their lives is a forgivable sin, but being responsible for the deaths of innocentsis not.He’s wracked with guilt over the part he played in kicking off the witchcraft hysteria (â€Å"There is blood on my head!† pg. 121). However, because Hale is so tormented, he’s only able to consider his personal feelings about the situation. The false confessions might absolve him of his guilt, but the confessors would be forced to live the rest of their lives in shame. This might seem strange to us today (obviously you should just lie to avoid being executed!), but we have to consider the pervasiveness of religion in Puritan society. This is not just a matter of upholding one's good name in society - it's a matter of the state of one's soul. To the most devout people (like Rebecca Nurse)in such a highly religious culture, lying about involvement with the Devil might be considered worse than death. If a person dies without sin, she will go to Heaven, but if she corroborates the lie perpetuated by the courts, her soul will carry a permanent stain and could spend eternity in Purgatory or Hell. Hale's argument is less than convincing to people who have spent their whole lives in service to God and don't intend to compromise such an excellent record. Meanwhile, John Proctor continues to feel guilty for his affair and the role it has played in putting both he and his wife in mortal peril.A deep fear of hypocrisy almost persuades Proctor to confess because he would feel guilty martyring himself next to other people like Rebecca Nurse who are genuinely without sin. He says,â€Å"My honesty is broke, Elizabeth; I am no good man† (pg. 126).However, he ultimately doesn’t allow his guilt to define him and refuses to give up the remainder of his integrity. Elizabeth also displays some guilt in Act 4 when she partially blames herself for pushing John into Abigail's arms("I have sins of my own to count. It takes a cold wife to prompt lechery" pg. 126). The sexism of the play shows through in Elizabeth's guilt. She has been conditioned to believe that it's her job to prevent her husband from straying by being a happy homemaker. If we weren't entirely sure that this play was written in the 1950s before, it's pretty clear now. She was bedridden, but that's no excuse for not attending to John's every need. What was she expecting? That he WOULDN'T sleep with a teenager? The CrucibleAct 4 Review Let's do a quick recap of the events of Act 4, the frustrating conclusion of The Crucible: Danforth and Hawthorne meet in a jail cell and discuss their concerns with Parris' erratic behavior and Hale's return to Salem. Parris joins them and reveals that Hale is advising the prisoners to confess. Parris also reveals that Abigail ran away with his life's savings, most likely because of the rising societal discontent withthe court's activities. Both Parris and Hale beg Danforth to either pardon the prisoners or postpone the hangings until confessions are obtained because Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor still have such good reputations, and their executions could cause an uprising. Danforth refuses because he's already executed other prisoners accused of the same crimes, and he doesn't want to look weak. They decide to bring in Elizabeth Proctor so she can talk to John and hopefully convince him to confess before he is sent to the gallows. John and Elizabeth discuss this decision, and John is leaning towards confessing because he doesn't feel he's worthy of martyrdom. Elizabeth tells him he has to make his own choice. John begins to confess, but he falters when he is ordered to sign his name to the confession and learns that itwill be displayed publicly. He tears up the confession and decides he will go to his death rather than permanently ruin his reputation and sacrifice the only integrity he has left. The officials try to convince Elizabeth to stop him, but she refuses because she recognizes this is the only way John can end his feelings of self-hatred. John and Rebecca Nurse are led to the gallows to be executed. In Miller's short afterward, entitled "Echoes Down the Corridor,"he statesthat Parris was soon voted out of office, and the families of the victims of the witch trials were later provided with compensation by the government. He claims that in the aftermath of the trials, "the power of theocracy in Massachusetts was broken." However, the events of The Crucible provide an all too clear allegory for many modern-day tragedies borne of prejudice, fear, and ignorance. What's Next? Now that you've read summaries for each act of The Crucible,check out our complete thematic analysis of the play so you can kick butt on all your English quizzes and essays. Need some quotes to flesh out your essay? Read this list of the most important quotes in The Crucible, catalogedby theme. You should also take a look at this article to see detailed analysisof the most important characters in The Crucible. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Guard Family

The Guard Family The Guard Family The Guard Family By Mark Nichol Guard is the basis of a family of words pertaining to protection; these terms are listed and defined in the post below. Guard, from the French verb garder (formerly also spelled guarder and warder), meaning â€Å"defend† and related to the Old High German term warten, meaning â€Å"take care,† has several senses: It refers to someone (or a group) assigned to protect someone or watch something or to the act of defending someone or keeping an eye on something, or the state of being protected. It also pertains to a protective component or device, to an athlete who has a defensive or protective role in competition, or to a defensive attitude, position, or state. One can be said to be on guard, or in a state of readiness, or to be off guard; the latter phrase is generally seen in the phrase â€Å"catch (or â€Å"caught†) off guard.† It is also a verb, and the adjective is guarded, guardedly is the adverbial form, and guardedness describes the state of being alert. Guard appears in the open compound â€Å"guard dog† and the closed compound guardrail. It is the root of guardian, a word describing a person in a protective role (such as an adult who serves as a surrogate parent for a minor); the state of being a guardian is guardianship. The phrase â€Å"guardian angel,† based on the notion of a protective supernatural being, now often refers to a flesh-and-blood person in such a role. â€Å"En garde,† taken directly from French, means â€Å"on (your) guard† and serves in fencing as a spoken warning for competitors to be prepared to defend themselves. Regard, as a noun meaning â€Å"consideration† or â€Å"judgment† (with the antonym disregard) or, as a verb, â€Å"consider† or â€Å"judge,† is from the French verb regarder, meaning â€Å"look at.† As a noun, it also has the sense of â€Å"respect,† and as such is used in correspondence in plural form as a sign-off. Self-regard refers to consideration of oneself or one’s interests. Regardless is an adjective with the sense of â€Å"in spite of† or â€Å"without consideration†; irregardless is an unfortunate and unnecessary variant careful writers will assiduously be on their guard to avoid. An advance guard or vanguard was originally a military unit that preceded the main body of troops into battle; the latter term now usually refers to a person or group at the forefront of a movement. Avant-garde is the French equivalent, borrowed into English with that sense but now figuratively describing an innovative artist, musician, or writer, or a work of art or literary or musical composition that is ground-breaking, or an entire creative movement considered as such. A rearguard, by contrast with a vanguard, protects a retreating force, and by analogy the word also pertains to resistance to an overwhelming phenomenon. â€Å"Honor guard† refers to a member of the military who has a ceremonial function or to a small unit of military personnel with such a role. Closed compounds with guard as the second element include bodyguard, referring to an individual assigned or hired to protect someone or to a group or unit in that role; lifeguard, originally a synonym for bodyguard but now the designation for a person trained to rescue people from a body of water when they are at risk of drowning; and safeguard, which means â€Å"something that provides protection.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Punctuating â€Å"So† at the Beginning of a SentenceStory Writing 101Drama vs. Melodrama

How to Cut out the Clutter in Professional Writing

How to Cut out the Clutter in Professional Writing What we take out of our writing can be just as important as what we put in. Here well apply some key editing strategies for cutting out needless wordsdeadwood that only bores, distracts, or confuses our readers. First, Review Tips to Cut the Clutter Before starting this exercise, you may want to review the ten points introduced in Tips to Cut the Clutter and More Ways to Cut the Clutter: Reduce long clauses to shorter phrases.Reduce phrases to single words.Avoid There is, There are, and There were as sentence openers.Dont overwork modifiers.Avoid redundancies.Use active verbs.Dont try to show off.Cut empty phrases.Avoid using noun forms of verbs.Replace vague nouns with more specific words. Practice Cutting the Clutter Now, lets put this advice to work. The sentences below contain unnecessary words. Without eliminating any essential information, revise each sentence to make it more concise. When youre done, compare your revisions with the shortened sentences below them. In the cellar there are four wooden-type crates with nothing in them that might perhaps be used by us for storing paint cans inside of.This morning at 6:30 a.m., I woke up out of sleep to hear my alarm go off, but the alarm was turned off by me, and I returned back to a sleeping state.The reason that Merdine was not able to be in attendance at the hockey game was because she had jury duty.Omar and I, we returned back to the hometown where we both grew up to attend a reunion of the people that we went to high school with ten years ago in the past.Melba has designed a very unique kind of shirt that is made out of a polyester type of material that never creases into wrinkles when it rains and the shirt gets wet.She used her money to purchase a large-type desk made of mahogany wood that is dark brown in color and handsome to look at.In view of the fact that it was raining down, orders were given that the game be canceled.At that point in time when Marie was a teenager the basic fundament als of how to dance were first learned by her. Some sort of identification that would show how old we were was requested of us by the man that collects tickets from people at the movie theater.There is a possibility that one of the causes of so many teenagers running away from home is the fact that many of them have indifferent parents who dont really care about them. Here are edited versions of the sentences in  Practice in Cutting the Clutter. We could store the paint cans in the four wooden crates in the cellar.I awoke this morning at 6:30 but then turned off the alarm and went back to sleep.Because she had jury duty, Merdine was not at the hockey game.Omar and I returned to our hometown to attend our ten-year high school reunion.Melba has designed a polyester shirt that never creases when wet.She purchased a large, handsome-looking mahogany desk.The game was canceled because of rain.Marie learned how to dance when she was a teenager.The ticket collector at the movie theater asked us for identification.Perhaps one reason that so many teenagers run away from home is that their parents dont care about them.

Human Resources Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Human Resources Management - Essay Example Training is the most applicable tool that Tesco can use to educate its employees. The company must invest heavily on training and development process for motivational reasons. It is important to understand what make, satisfies or dissatisfies employees. Additionally, the company should carefully analyze and plan its training needs to have a tremendous influence and impact on the employee’s performance (McDowall & Mark 2010, p610). Tesco must establish the group that needs training, areas that need improvement, and the resources required for the training process to be effective. Indeed, companies that pay a great attention and invest a lot in their training and development process, often have the best results such as an increase in work performance, productivity, morale, and satisfaction just to name a few. Solutions to having the best training and development process depends more on the communication strategies used. In other words, communication must be the main drive to orga nizational development and encourages employees to generate and learn from one another. Some of the potential applications and strategies that Tesco may adopt to take full advantage of modern technology and enhance their training and development process might include the following. The most important strategy is the capacity or ability to broadcast messages from different offices across the world. The innovation of technology reduces the cost of international travel, thus allowing executives to be in meetings virtually and interact effectively (Cherniss, Grimm & Liautaud 2010, p415). With this, technology can be used to enhance communication in training and development by breaking distance barriers that may hinder effective interaction. Technology boosts communication process in the sense that, trainers do not have to travel in miles training trainees. The trainer only needs to record the message and send it to the company or the organization in need. Tesco should embrace this strat egy to boost its communication in training and development. For instance, the holographic technology is a potential technological tool that would benefit Tesco. Employers could use this technology to increase company meetings, internal communication and learning, and development. According to Kissack & Callahan (2010, p366), the systems of holographic technology is supplied by a projector or an LED screen that enhances reflected images on the onstage. The company should embrace this technology to enhance a great impact in communication process. Most companies experience challenges in getting their message across and understanding the people that need to learn. Thus, it is important to connect to people emotionally by making them understand what is expected of them in the workplace. The company must embrace the investment of technology such as holographic against the savings on international accommodations and flights. By utilizing the modern technology, Tesco’s employees woul d be more connected to learning process. Still, employers would be in a better position to enlist technologies that help them stay connected to experts across the globe. Instead of hiring experts to come and train the organization, Tesco would only need to broadcast messages by different experts and stay connected, enriched, and motivated

MATHEMATICAL STATISTIC AND ITS IMPACT ON LAWENFORCEMENT Term Paper

MATHEMATICAL STATISTIC AND ITS IMPACT ON LAWENFORCEMENT - Term Paper Example Some areas where statistics has had an impact on law enforcement are; Statistics is employed in conducting survey about the law enforcement agencies. The variables subjected to analysis include the number of state police, municipal police, special police, sheriff departments and count police. The aim of conducting the analysis is to determine on average the number of people served by one policeman. Based on the outcome, significant changes can be effected to improve the number of the law enforcement agencies thus improving services offered to the civilians. The program used to conduct the research is the law enforcement and administrative statistics (LEMAS). This statistical survey also presents other information about the law enforcement agencies, this information include the spending, salaries to employees, levels of employment and departmental functions, based on this information, the agencies can be improved. Thus applying statistics improve the law enforcement process (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). Lawyers use statistical tools for their data evaluation and presentation. In the industrial tax appeals, regression analysis of the sales has to be conducted in the determination of tax. This involves econometrics, computation of variance and plays a significant role in determination of the actual value. Lawyers also use statistical tools to evaluate data and evidence presented to him. Lawyers equipped with statistical methods defend their clients better. Lawyers also use deductive logic to defend their clients. Lawyers involved in civil suits have to use statistical tools to compute interests, percentages, tax, proportions, monetary computations and other numerous valuations involved when settling legal claims. The use of statistics tools therefore aid the lawyers in deducing correct descions as well as in calculation of

Civil Liberties, Habeas Corpus, and the War on Terror Essay - 2

Civil Liberties, Habeas Corpus, and the War on Terror - Essay Example The work that follows discusses the right of habeas corpus in the war on terror and its historical evolution. Historical Evolution of habeas corpus According to English tradition, habeas corpus fought for liberty of citizens after English land owners forced it on King John in their constitutional document named Magna Charta (Halliday, 2010). The constitutional document declared that no seizure, imprisonment, exile or injury shall occur on anyone except by lawful judgment by the law of the land. In other words everyone had a right to freedom unless they pass through due law process. The common-law courts became the first to use habeas corpus in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries competing with feudal courts, which local land owners controlled (King & Hoffmann, 2011:). These feudal courts had no consistency in their procedures, and the common-law courts began issuing orders demanding release of prisoners in the feudal courts. According to the U.S tradition, Americans believed habe as corpus as a weapon used to defend an individual’s liberty, and planned to protect it from suspension in times of peace through inclusion of a provision in Article I of their constitution (King & Hoffmann, 2011:). ... ?s war against terrorism, habeas corpus checks abuse of government power on alleged terrorists or suspected aliens or criminals to ensure protection of individuals’ liberty. Examples from U.S. history of the suspension of habeas corpus and their applicability to the present There are several examples of suspension of habeas corpus in the United States history, which are in application at present. An example of habeas corpus suspension is during the reign of Abraham Lincoln. Although authorizing order of the suspension took place in the year 1861, the suspension took place in March 1863 (Dueholm, 2008). The orders given stated that, first, throughout the war period, any person committing a disloyal practice or giving aid to rebels against the U.S authority would be liable to punishment by military commission or courts martial. Secondly, the orders stated that the suspension of habeas corpus was in respect to all persons arrested in places confined by military commission or auth ority. As Article I in the U. S constitution stated, the government had authority to suspend the writ of habeas corpus incase there is risk of security, and when the public safety requires it. Lincoln got authority to suspend habeas corpus after Congress passed an act, two years to the war (Dueholm, 2008). According to the article, the president had executive power vested in them, which gave authority to conduct any changes in the government. The suspension of habeas corpus still applies at present, as the president still has powers to execute changes in the government. Another example in U. S history is seen when Bush signed a law in October 2006 that suspended the rights of habeas corpus to persons whom United States considered an enemy in the war against terror (Longley, 2013). However, this

Stanley Cavell Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Stanley Cavell - Essay Example One of the most significant elements of Cavell's analysis is his effort to question the nature of knowledge in the light of how knowledge could provide a rational basis for morality. In part III, chapter IX, Cavell declares: Dialectically, this problem [the problem of morality] is reflected in a fact about "moral arguments" -- the "methods" (to use Sidgwick's term) by which we undertake to arrive at a knowledge, or "rational conviction", as to what ought to be done -- which has insistently and constantly occupied the attention of moral philosophers, viz., that such arguments are always, and dishearteningly, liable to break down, or end in stalemate, and the question which prompted the argument either left without answer or with incompatible answers which any further argument would seem helpless to resolve (247). This seems to suggest that Cavell views the acquisition of knowledge and the debate about moral reasoning to exclusively belong to the concerns of philosophers. Cavell thus, in a Wittgensteinian fashion, seems to be despairing of the hopes for settling moral arguments. But, upon closer examination, Cavell is offering quite an insightful method for resolving moral disputes. Herein, Cavell’s resolution rests on seeing that some moral disputes will never arrive at a point of mutual agreement, and so individuals would have to â€Å"agree to disagree† amicably. Also, he stresses the importance of a resolution wherein both individuals come to understand the other individual’s point of view, despite their unending moral disagreements. It is in this regard that Cavell advocates the idea of moral perfectionism, and the idea of democracy from within. For, self-knowledge is, for Cavell, fundamental for moral discourse. It is important to note that Cavell, quite consciously, echoes Greek dramatists and culture in his ethical analysis. It seems, then, that Cavell, in referring to both knowledge and morality, is referring to three main figures in ancient philosophy: Socrates himself, Plato and Aristotle. These ethical schools of thought viewed knowledge and morality as intimately connected. Plato, for instance, advocates that the road towards the true life of the spirit is a path of purification where man exerts effort to reach genuine wisdom. The soul is purified as it reaches ever-higher degrees of knowledge; it is healed of its sensible affections and made virtuous. In essence, morality, like any other element of human life and knowledge, is a skill and a body of knowledge. What prevents people from being noble, in Plato's view (expressed by Socrates in the traditional Platonic view), is a lack of knowledge. When people are fully and deeply aware of why it is good to be good, why just behavior is appropriate, they will behave appropriately. Part of this is enlightened self-interest: Both Plato and Aristotle were eudaemonic philosophers, who believed that morality's goal was to create and promote a eudaemonia, narrowly de fined as â€Å"well-being† or â€Å"happiness† but meaning much more broadly a good and overarching spirit of things. Plato and Aristotle's idea of the eudaemonia varied, of course, but both shared the belief that once ethical issues were fully understood, people would realize that it would be against their own enlightened self-

Nursing Practices Over the Years Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nursing Practices Over the Years - Essay Example They defined nursing to be the analysis and taking care of the human reactions of real or possible health hazards. It should also be noted in this regard that along with the definition of nursing, the education related to nursing has also undergone a substantial change over the period (Royal College of Nursing, 2011). Comparing and Contrasting the Nursing Education The commencement of professional nursing dates back to the school of England in 19th century which was set up by Florence Nightingale. Here ethical teachings and values that were profession-shaping were taught and exchanged. Florence Nightingale’s success in the field of nursing seemed to be a milestone although performance of her school graduates in those days was way below the expectation. Previously, owing to the powerful medical manipulation, the educationists related to nursing stressed mostly on technical training compared to science and art of nursing. But, today the nursing education emphasizes on a much bro ader aspect than just technical training (Butts, 2007). The reason for this spectacular change is because of the changing societal requirements and influences. In the earlier years, nursing was not practiced at a professional level like the way it is done today. Back in those days, nurses were required to cater to the patients’ spiritual requirements compared to the physical ones. Requirement of nurses was such where the nurses would be accountable to the physicians or surgeons first and also would correctly look after their patients. The nurses were even needed to keep a check on the treatments which were ordered by the physicians as well as surgeons. The perception of nursing back then was not based on technical training. Nurses only needed to care for those people who were not able to care for or pay attention to themselves owing to health reasons. They were not required to be technically trained as anything related to the technical procedures and medications was handled b y the physicians as well as the surgeons (Hutchinson, 1998). The basic responsibility of the nurses which was considered to be the main attribute was their obedience towards the physicians. The nurses during that time were not permitted to question or disagree with the physicians. They had to carry out the orders and instructions of the physicians’ in spite of not agreeing with them. The primary aim of a nursing staff has remained the same over the years. In the present day context as well, they are expected to remain obedient towards the physicians and provide necessary assistance to them in order to provide health care support to the patient (Royal College of Nursing, 2011). Thus, it is quite evident that no such technical training was required for nurses in those days. They were only required to be willing to extent their help to ease the sufferings of the sick and help them with their services. After the establishment of the nursing school by Florence Nightingale, the nee d for technical training for the nurses was recognized. The nurses were trained to carry out the instructions of the physicians for which an understanding regarding the medicines were needed. Technical training remained limited to this (Royal College of Nursing, 2011). The teaching of nursing and performance underwent alterations due to the varying wants of the society. Nursing practice is getting affected due to the advancements made in the field of technology and science. Nurses are required to work

Abstract for the paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Abstract for the paper - Essay Example There are healthy relationships between all levels of employees. They are characterized by respect and trust which promote innovation and responsibility. Apple’s leadership style and organization structure is also under scrutiny with special attention to the role of managers and their interaction with their subordinates and superiors. Apple Inc. adopts transformational leadership style while the organization structure is collaborative in nature. Each manager adopts a transformative style while also promoting centralized decision making that includes employees. The management of human resources at Apple Inc. is reviewed in this paper. The findings are that Apple Inc. is keen to hire and retain quality employees. It has recruitment strategies that focus on top students from different colleges as well as training and development programs to ensure that employees are equipped with contemporary practices in the industry. The training and development programs also aim at promoting t eamwork. This analysis of Apple Inc. will provide insightful information as on the management practices of Apple that are renowned for its success in the technology

Nursing Practices Over the Years Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nursing Practices Over the Years - Essay Example They defined nursing to be the analysis and taking care of the human reactions of real or possible health hazards. It should also be noted in this regard that along with the definition of nursing, the education related to nursing has also undergone a substantial change over the period (Royal College of Nursing, 2011). Comparing and Contrasting the Nursing Education The commencement of professional nursing dates back to the school of England in 19th century which was set up by Florence Nightingale. Here ethical teachings and values that were profession-shaping were taught and exchanged. Florence Nightingale’s success in the field of nursing seemed to be a milestone although performance of her school graduates in those days was way below the expectation. Previously, owing to the powerful medical manipulation, the educationists related to nursing stressed mostly on technical training compared to science and art of nursing. But, today the nursing education emphasizes on a much bro ader aspect than just technical training (Butts, 2007). The reason for this spectacular change is because of the changing societal requirements and influences. In the earlier years, nursing was not practiced at a professional level like the way it is done today. Back in those days, nurses were required to cater to the patients’ spiritual requirements compared to the physical ones. Requirement of nurses was such where the nurses would be accountable to the physicians or surgeons first and also would correctly look after their patients. The nurses were even needed to keep a check on the treatments which were ordered by the physicians as well as surgeons. The perception of nursing back then was not based on technical training. Nurses only needed to care for those people who were not able to care for or pay attention to themselves owing to health reasons. They were not required to be technically trained as anything related to the technical procedures and medications was handled b y the physicians as well as the surgeons (Hutchinson, 1998). The basic responsibility of the nurses which was considered to be the main attribute was their obedience towards the physicians. The nurses during that time were not permitted to question or disagree with the physicians. They had to carry out the orders and instructions of the physicians’ in spite of not agreeing with them. The primary aim of a nursing staff has remained the same over the years. In the present day context as well, they are expected to remain obedient towards the physicians and provide necessary assistance to them in order to provide health care support to the patient (Royal College of Nursing, 2011). Thus, it is quite evident that no such technical training was required for nurses in those days. They were only required to be willing to extent their help to ease the sufferings of the sick and help them with their services. After the establishment of the nursing school by Florence Nightingale, the nee d for technical training for the nurses was recognized. The nurses were trained to carry out the instructions of the physicians for which an understanding regarding the medicines were needed. Technical training remained limited to this (Royal College of Nursing, 2011). The teaching of nursing and performance underwent alterations due to the varying wants of the society. Nursing practice is getting affected due to the advancements made in the field of technology and science. Nurses are required to work

Ferdinand de Saussure Essay Example for Free

Ferdinand de Saussure Essay Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. As a discipline it links literary criticism and linguistics, but has no autonomous domain of its own. [1][2] The preferred object of stylistic studies is literature, but not exclusively high literature but also other forms of written texts such as text from the domains of advertising, pop culture, politics or religion. [3] Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism. Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people’s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals. * | Early twentieth century The analysis of literary style goes back to Classical rhetoric, but modern stylistics has its roots in Russian Formalism,[4] and the related Prague School, in the early twentieth century. In 1909, Charles Ballys Traite de stylistique francaise had proposed stylistics as a distinct academic discipline to complement Saussurean linguistics. For Bally, Saussures linguistics by itself couldnt fully describe the language of personal expression. [5] Ballys programme fitted well with the aims of the Prague School. [6] Building on the ideas of the Russian Formalists, the Prague School developed the concept of foregrounding, whereby poetic language stands out from the background of non-literary language by means of deviation (from the norms of everyday language) or parallelism. [7] According to the Prague School, the background language isnt fixed, and the relationship between poetic and everyday language is always shifting. [8] Late twentieth century Roman Jakobson had been an active member of the Russian Formalists and the Prague School, before emigrating to America in the 1940s. He brought together Russian Formalism and American New Criticism in his Closing Statement at a conference on stylistics at Indiana University in 1958. [9] Published as Linguistics and Poetics in 1960, Jakobsons lecture is often credited with being the first coherent formulation of stylistics, and his argument was that the study of poetic language should be a sub-branch of linguistics. [10] The poetic function was one of six general functions of language he described in the lecture. Michael Halliday is an important figure in the development of British stylistics. [11] His 1971 study Linguistic Function and Literary Style: An Inquiry into the Language of William Goldings The Inheritors is a key essay. [12] One of Hallidays contributions has been the use of the term register to explain the connections between language and its context. [13] For Halliday register is distinct from dialect. Dialect refers to the habitual language of a particular user in a specific geographical or social context. Register describes the choices made by the user,[14] choices which depend on three variables: field (what the participants are actually engaged in doing, for instance, discussing a specific subject or topic),[15] tenor (who is taking part in the exchange) and mode (the use to which the language is being put). Fowler comments that different fields produce different language, most obviously at the level of vocabulary (Fowler. 1996, 192) The linguist David Crystal points out that Halliday’s ‘tenor’ stands as a roughly equivalent term for ‘style’, which is a more specific alternative used by linguists to avoid ambiguity. (Crystal. 1985, 292) Halliday’s third category, mode, is what he refers to as the symbolic organisation of the situation. Downes recognises two distinct aspects within the category of mode and suggests that not only does it describe the relation to the medium: written, spoken, and so on, but also describes the genre of the text. (Downes. 1998, 316) Halliday refers to genre as pre-coded language, language that has not simply been used before, but that predetermines the selection of textual meanings. The linguist William Downes makes the point that the principal characteristic of register, no matter how peculiar or diverse, is that it is obvious and immediately recognisable. (Downes. 1998, 309) Literary stylistics In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Crystal observes that, in practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex and ‘valued’ language within literature, i. e.  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœliterary stylistics’. He goes on to say that in such examination the scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays and novels. (Crystal. 1987, 71). Poetry As well as conventional styles of language there are the unconventional – the most obvious of which is poetry. In Practical Stylistics, HG Widdowson examines the traditional form of the epitaph, as found on headstones in a cemetery. For example: His memory is dear today As in the hour he passed away. (Ernest C. Draper ‘Ern’. Died 4. 1. 38) (Widdowson. 1992, 6) Widdowson makes the point that such sentiments are usually not very interesting and suggests that they may even be dismissed as ‘crude verbal carvings’ and crude verbal disturbance (Widdowson, 3). Nevertheless, Widdowson recognises that they are a very real attempt to convey feelings of human loss and preserve affectionate recollections of a beloved friend or family member. However, what may be seen as poetic in this language is not so much in the formulaic phraseology but in where it appears. The verse may be given undue reverence precisely because of the sombre situation in which it is placed. Widdowson suggests that, unlike words set in stone in a graveyard, poetry is unorthodox language that vibrates with inter-textual implications. (Widdowson. 1992, 4) Two problems with a stylistic analysis of poetry are noted by PM Wetherill in Literary Text: An Examination of Critical Methods. The first is that there may be an over-preoccupation with one particular feature that may well minimise the significance of others that are equally important. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) The second is that any attempt to see a text as simply a collection of stylistic elements will tend to ignore other ways whereby meaning is produced. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) Implicature In ‘Poetic Effects’ from Literary Pragmatics, the linguist Adrian Pilkington analyses the idea of ‘implicature’, as instigated in the previous work of Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. Implicature may be divided into two categories: ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ implicature, yet between the two extremes there are a variety of other alternatives. The strongest implicature is what is emphatically implied by the speaker or writer, while weaker implicatures are the wider possibilities of meaning that the hearer or reader may conclude. Pilkington’s ‘poetic effects’, as he terms the concept, are those that achieve most relevance through a wide array of weak implicatures and not those meanings that are simply ‘read in’ by the hearer or reader. Yet the distinguishing instant at which weak implicatures and the hearer or reader’s conjecture of meaning diverge remains highly subjective. As Pilkington says: ‘there is no clear cut-off point between assumptions which the speaker certainly endorses and assumptions derived purely on the hearer’s responsibility. ’ (Pilkington. 1991, 53) In addition, the stylistic qualities of poetry can be seen as an accompaniment to Pilkington’s poetic effects in understanding a poems meaning. Stylistics is a valuable if long-winded approach to criticism, and compels attention to the poems details. Two of the three simple exercises performed here show that the poem is deficient in structure, and needs to be radically recast. The third sheds light on its content. Introduction Stylistics applies linguistics to literature in the hope of arriving at analyses which are more broadly based, rigorous and objective. {1} The pioneers were the Prague and Russian schools, but their approaches have been appropriated and extended in recent years by radical theory. Stylistics can be evaluative (i. e.  judge the literary worth on stylistic criteria), but more commonly attempts to simply analyze and describe the workings of texts which have already been selected as noteworthy on other grounds. Analyses can appear objective, detailed and technical, even requiring computer assistance, but some caution is needed. Linguistics is currently a battlefield of contending theories, with no settlement in sight. Many critics have no formal training in linguistics, or even proper reading, and are apt to build on theories (commonly those of Saussure or Jacobson) that are inappropriate and/or no longer accepted. Some of the commonest terms, e. g. deep structure, foregrounding, have little or no experimental support. {2} Linguistics has rather different objectives, moreover: to study languages in their entirety and generality, not their use in art forms. Stylistic excellence — intelligence, originality, density and variety of verbal devices — play their part in literature, but aesthetics has long recognized that other aspects are equally important: fidelity to experience, emotional shaping, significant content. Stylistics may well be popular because it regards literature as simply part of language and therefore (neglecting the aesthetic dimension) without a privileged status, which allows the literary canon to be replaced by one more politically or sociologically acceptable. {3} Why then employ stylistics at all? Because form is important in poetry, and stylistics has the largest armoury of analytical weapons. Moreover, stylistics need not be reductive and simplistic. There is no need to embrace Jacobsons theory that poetry is characterized by the projection of the paradigmatic axis onto the syntagmatic one. {4} Nor accept Bradfords theory of a double spiral: {5} literature has too richly varied a history to be fitted into such a straitjacket. Stylistics suggests why certain devices are effective, but does not offer recipes, any more than theories of musical harmony explains away the gifts of individual composers. Some stylistic analysis is to be found in most types of literary criticism, and differences between the traditional, New Criticism and Stylistics approaches are often matters of emphasis. Style is a term of approbation in everyday use (that woman has style, etc.), and may be so for traditional and New Criticism. But where the first would judge a poem by reference to typical work of the period (Jacobean, Romantic, Modernist, etc. ), or according to genre, the New Criticism would probably simply note the conventions, explain what was unclear to a modern audience, and then pass on to a detailed analysis in terms of verbal density, complexity, ambiguity, etc. To the Stylistic critic, however, style means simply how something is expressed, which can be studied in all language, aesthetic and non-aesthetic. {6} Stylistics is a  very technical subject, which hardly makes for engrossing, or indeed uncontentious, {7} reading. The treatment here is very simple: just the bare bones, with some references cited. Under various categories the poem is analyzed in a dry manner, the more salient indications noted, and some recommendations made in Conclusions. Published Examples of Stylistic Literary Criticism G. N. Leechs A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (1969) Laura Browns Alexander Pope (1985) Roy Lewiss On Reading French Verse: A Study in Poetic Form (1982) George Wrights Shakespeares Metrical Art. (1988) Richard Bradfords A Linguistic History of English Poetry (1993) Poem The Architects But, as youd expect, they are very Impatient, the buildings, having much in them Of the heavy surf of the North Sea, flurrying The grit, lifting the pebbles, flinging them With a hoarse roar against the aggregate They are composed of — the cliffs higher of course, More burdensome, underwritten as It were with past days overcast And glinting, obdurate, part of the Silicate of tough lives, distant and intricate As the whirring bureaucrats let in And settled with coffee in the concrete pallets, Awaiting the post and the department meeting —  Except that these do not know it, at least do not Seem to, being busy, generally. So perhaps it is only on those cloudless, almost Vacuumed afternoons with tier upon tier Of concrete like rib-bones packed above them, And they light-headed with the blue airiness Spinning around, and muzzy, a neuralgia Calling at random like frail relations, a phone Ringing in a distant office they cannot get to, That they become attentive, or we do — these Divisions persisting, indeed what we talk about, We, constructing these webs of buildings which, Caulked like great whales about us, are always. Aware that some trick of the light or weather Will dress them as friends, pleading and flailing — And fill with placid but unbearable melodies Us in deep hinterlands of incurved glass.  © C. John Holcombe 1997 Metre Though apparently iambic, with five stresses to the line, the metre shows many reversals and substitutions. Put at its simplest, with: / representing a strong stress \ representing a weak stress x representing no stress, and trying to fit lines into a pentameters, we have -| /| x| x| x| /| -| \| x| /| x| | But| as| youd| ex| pect| | they| are| ve| ry| x| /| x| x| /| x| /| x| \| x| x|. Im| pat| ient| the| build| ings,| hav| ing| much| in| them| x| x| \| x| /| x| x| \| /| /| x x| Of| the| heav| y| surf| of| the| North| Sea,| flurr| ying| x| /| -| /| x| x| /| x| /| x| \| The| grit,| | lift| ing| the| pebbl| es,| fling| ing| them| \| x| /| -| /| x| \| x| /| x| \| With| a| hoarse| | roar| a| gainst| the| agg| re| gate| x| \| x| /| \| x| /| /| x| x| /| They| are| com| posed| of,| the| cliffs| high| er| of| course| \| /| x| \| -| /| x| / | x| \| | More| burd| en| some,| | un| der| writ| ten| as| | x| /| x| /| -| /| -| /| x| /| | It| were| with| past| | days| | o| ver| cast| | x| /| x|. \| /| x| \| -| /| x| x| And | glit| ter| ing,| ob| du| rate,| | part| of| the| -| /| x x x| /| -| /| -| /| x x| /| x x| | Sil| icate of| tough| | lives| | dist| ant and| in| tricate| -| \| x| /| x| /| x| \| -| /| x| | As| the| whir| ring| bu| reau| crats| | let| in| x| /| x x| /| x| \| x| /| x| /| x| And | set| tled with| cof| fee| in| the| con| crete| pal| lets| x| /| x x| /| x| \| x| /| x| /| x| A| wait| ing the| post| and| the| de| part| ment| meet| ing| x| \| x| /| \ x | /| x| x| \| /| x| Ex| cept| that| these| do not| know| it, | at| least| do| not| -| /| x| /| x| /| x| /| x| \| x|. | Seem| to| be| ing| bus| y| gen| ER| all| y| \| x| /| x x| /| x| \| x| /| x| /| x| So| per| haps| it is| on| ly| on| those| cloud| less| al| most| -| /| x| /| x| \| x| /| x x| \| /| x| | Vac| uumed| af| ter| noons| with| ti| ER u| pon| ti| ER| x| /| x| \| /| /| -| /| x| /| x| | Of| con| Crete| like| rib| bones| | packed| a| bove| them| | x| /| \| /| x| \| x| /| /| x| \| | And | they| light| head| ed,| with| the| blue| air| i| ness| | -| /| x x| /| x| /| x| \| x| /| x x| | | Spin| ning a| round| and| muz| zy,| a| neu| ral| gia| | -| /| x x| /| x x| /| x| /| x x| /| |. | Cal| ling at| ran| dom like| frail| re| lat| ions a| phone| | -| /| x x x| /| x| /| x x| /| x| /| x| | Ring| ing in a| dist| ant| of| fice they| can| not| get| to| x| /| x| /| x| /| x x| /| /-| \| | That| they| be| come| at| ten| tive, or| we| do| these| | x| /| x x| /| x x| /| \| x| /| x| /| Di| vis| ions per| sist| ing, in| deed| what| we| talk| a| bout| -| /| x| /| x x| /| x| /| x| \| | | We,| con| struct| ing these| webs| of| build| ings| which| | -| /| x| /| \| /| x| /| x x| /| x| | Caulk| Ed | like| great| whales| a| bout| us are| al| ways| x| /| x x| /| x x| /| x| /| x| | |. A| ware| that some| trick| of the| light| or| weath| ER| | | \| /| x x| /| -| /| x x| /| x| | | Will| dress| them as| friends| | plead| ing and| flail| ing| | | x| /| x| /| x| \| x| /| x x| /| x x| And| fill| with| plac| id| but | UN| bear| able | mel| odies| -| /| x| \| -| /| x x x| /| \| /| | | Us | in| deep| | hint| erlands of| in| curved| glass| | Poets learn to trust their senses, but even to the experienced writer these (tedious) exercises can pinpoint what the ear suspects is faulty, suggest where improvements lie, and show how the metre is making for variety, broad consistency, shaping of the argument and emotive appeal. Though other scansions are certainly possible in the lines above, the most striking feature will remain their irregularity. Many lines can only roughly be called pentameters; Lines 16 and 17 are strictly hexameters; and lines 27 and 28 are tetrameters. In fact, the lines do not read like blank verse. The rhythm is not iambic in many areas, but trochaic, and indeed insistently dactylic in lines 9 and 10, 21 and 22 and 28. Line 27 is predominantly anapaestic, and line 3 could (just) be scanned: x x| / x| /| x x \| /| | /| x x | Of the| heavy| surf| of the North| Sea| | flurr| ying|. Reflective or meditative verse is generally written in the iambic pentameter, and for good reason — the benefit of past examples, readers expectations, and because the iambic is the closest to everyday speech: flexible, unemphatic, expressing a wide range of social registers. Blank verse for the stage may be very irregular but this, predominantly, is a quiet poem, with the falling rhythms inducing a mood of reflection if not melancholy. What is being attempted? Suppose we set out the argument (refer to rhetorical and other analyses), tabbing and reverse tabbing as the reflections as they seem more or less private: {8} 1. But, as youd expect, 2. they are very impatient, the buildings, 3. having much in them of the heavy surf of the North Sea, 4. flurrying the grit, 5. lifting the pebbles, 6. flinging them with a hoarse roar against the aggregate they are composed of — the 7. cliffs higher of course, more 8. burdensome, 9. underwritten as it were with past days 10. overcast and glinting, 11. obdurate, 12. part of the silicate of tough lives, 13. distant and intricate as 14. the whirring bureaucrats 15. Let in and settled with coffee in the concrete pallets, awaiting the post and the department meeting — 16. except that these do not know it,  17. at least do not seem to, being busy, 18. generally. 19. So perhaps it is only on those cloudless, almost vacuumed afternoons with tier upon tier of concrete like rib — bones packed above them, and 20. they light-headed 21. with the blue airiness spinning around, and 22. muzzy, a 23. neuralgia calling at random like 24. frail relations, a 25. phone ringing in a distant office they cannot get to, that 26. They become attentive, 27. or we do — 28. these divisions persisting, 29. indeed what we talk about, 30. we, constructing these webs of buildings which 31. Caulked like great whales about us, are 32.  always aware that some trick of the light or weather will dress them as friends, 33. pleading and flailing — and 34. fill with placid but unbearable melodies 35. us in deep hinterlands of incurved glass. The structure should now be clear. Where Eliot created new forms by stringing together unremarkable pentameters, {8} this poem attempts the reverse: to recast an irregular ode-like structure as pentameters. And not over-successfully: many of the rhythms seemed unduly confined. But once returned to the form of an eighteenth century Pindaric ode, however unfashionable today, the lines regain a structure and integrity. Each starts with a marked stress and then tails away, a feature emphasized by the sound patterns. {9} Sound Patterning To these sound patterns we now turn, adapting the International Phonetic Alphabet to HTML restrictions: 1. But | as | youd | expect | u | a | U | e e | b t | z | y d | ksp kt | 2. They | are | very | impatient | the | buildings | A | a(r) | e E | i A e | e | i i | th | | v r | mp sh nt | th | b ld ngz | 3. Having | much | in | them | of | the | heavy | surf | of | the | North | Sea | a i | u | i | e | o | e | e | e(r) | o | e | aw | E | h v ng | m ch | n | th m | v | th | h v | s f | v | th | n th | s |. 4. flurrying | the | grit | u E i | e | i | fl r ng | th | gr t | 5. lifting | the | pebbles | i i | e | e | l ft ng | th | p b lz | 6. flinging | them | with | a | hoarse | roar | against | the | aggregate | they | are | composed | of | i i | e | i | e | aw | aw | e A | e | a E A | A | a(r) | o O | o | fl ng ng | th m | w th | | h s | r | g nst | th | gr g t | th | | k MP zd | v | 7. the | cliffs | higher | of | course | more | e | i | I e | o | aw | aw | th | kl fs | h | v | s | m | 8. burdensome | u(r) e e | b d ns m | 9.underwritten | as | it | were | with | past | days | u e i e | a | i | (e)r | i | a(r) | A | nd r t n | z | t | w | w | p st | d z | 10. overcast | and | glinting | O e(r) a(r) | a | i i | v k St | nd | gl NT ng | 11. obdurate | o U A | bd r t | 12. part | of | the | silicate | of | tough | lives | (a)r | o | e | i i A | o | u | I | p t | f | th | s l k t | v | t f | l vz | 13. distant | and | intricate | i a | a | i i e | d St NT | nd | NT r k t | 14. as | the | whirring | bureaucrats | a | e | e(r) i | U O a | z | th | w r ng | b r kr ts | 15. let | in | and | settled | with | coffee | in | the | concrete | pallets | e | i | a | e ie | i | o E | i | e | o E | a e | l t | n | nd | s tl d | w th | k f | n | th | k Kr t | p l Ts | awaiting | the | post | and | the | department | meeting | e A i | e | O | a | e | E e | E i | w t ng | th | p St | nd | th | d p tm NT | m t ng | 16. except | that | these | do | not | know | it | e e | a | E | U | o | O | i | ks pt | th | th z | d | n t | n | t | 17. at | least | do | not | seem | to | being | busy | a | E | U | o | E | U | E i | i E | t | l St | d | n t | s m | t | b ng | b z /td | 18. generally | e e a E | j nr l | 19. so | perhaps | it | is | only | on | those | cloudless | almost | vacuumed | afternoons | O | e(r) a | i | i | O | o | O | ou e | aw O | a U | a(r) e oo | s | p h ps | t | z | nl | n | th z | kl dl s | lm St | v k md | ft n nz | with | tier | upon | tier | of | concrete | like | rib | bones | packed | above | them | and | i | E e(r) | e o | E e(r) | o | o E | I | i | O | a | e u | e | a | w th | t | p n | t | v | k nkr t | l k | r b | b nz | p Kt | b v | th m | nd | 20. they | light | headed | A | I | e e | th | l t | h d d | 21.with | the | blue | airiness | spinning | around | and | i | e | U | (A)r i e | i i | e ou | a | w th | th | bl | r n s | sp n ng | r nd | nd | 22. muzzy | a | u E | e | m z | | 23. neuralgia | calling | at | random | like | U a E a | aw i | a | a o | I | n r lj | k l ng | t | r nd m | l k | 24. frail | relations | a | A | e A e | e | fr l | r l zh nz | | 25. phone | ringing | in | a | distant | office | they | cannot | get | to | that | O | i i | i | e | i a | o i | A | a o | e | oo | a | | f n | r ng ng | n | | d St NT | f s | th | k n t | g t | t | th | | 26.they | become | attentive | A | E u | a e i | th | b k m | t NT v | 27. or | we | do | aw | E | oo | | w | d | 28. these | divisions | persisting | E | i i e | e(r) i i | th z | d v zh nz | p s St ng | 29. indeed | what | we | talk | about | i E | o | E | aw | e ou | in d | wh t | w | t k | b t | 30. we | constructing | these | webs | of | buildings | which | E | o u i | E | e | o | i i | i | w | k nz str Kt ng | th z | w bs | v | b ld ngz | wh Ch | 31. caulked | like | great | whales | about | us | are | aw | I | A | A | e ou | u | a(r) | k kd | l k | gr t | w lz | b t | s | | 32. always | aware | that | some | trick | of | the | light | or | weather | will | dress | them | as | friends | aw A | e (A)r | a | u | i | o | e | I | aw | e e(r) | i | e | e | a | e | lw z | w | th t | s m | tr k | v | th | l t | | w th | w l | dr s | th m | z | Fr ndz | 33. pleading | and | flailing | E i | a | A i | pl d ng | nd | fl l ng | 34. will | fill | with | placid | but | unbearable | melodies | i | i | i | a i | u | u A(r) a e | e O E | f l | w th | PL s d | b t | n b r b l | m l d z | | 35. us | in | deep | hinterlands | of | incurved | glass | u | i | E | i e a | o | i e(r) | a(r) | s | n | d p | h NT l ndz | v | nk v d | GL s | Sound in poetry is an immensely complicated and contentious subject. Of the seventeen different employments listed by Masson {10} we consider seven: 1. Structural emphasis All sections are structurally emphasized to some extent, but note the use (in decreasing hardness) of * plosive consonants in sections 1, 5, 6, 7, 10-13, 19, 28-50; 31 and 35. * fricative and aspirate consonants in sections 2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 19, 25, 28, 32, 35. * liquid and nasal consonants in sections 3, 4, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 31-35. Also: * predominance of front vowels — in all sections but 6, 7, 11, 16, 17, 19 and 31. * predominance of vowels in intermediate positions — only sections 16 and 17 having several high vowels and section 3 low vowels. 2. Tagging of sections Note sections 1, 7, 13 and 15. 3. Indirect support of argument by related echoes * Widely used, most obviously in sections 3-7, 12-13, and 15. 4. Illustrative mime: mouth movements apes expression * Sections 2, 6, 11-13, 19, 31 and 35. 5. Illustrative painting * Sections 3-6, 10-13, 15, 19 and 33. Most sections are closely patterned in consonants. Those which arent (and therefore need attention if consistency is to be maintained) are perhaps 8, 9, 14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26 and 27. Originally the poem was cast in the form of irregular pentameters. But if this is set aside in favour of the 35 sections listed above, how are these sections to be linked in a self-evident and pleasing form? A little is accomplished by alliteration: * f in sections 3 to 7. * s and t in sections 12 to 15 * w in sections 29 to 32 And also by the predominance of front and intermediate level vowels, but these do not amount to much. Certainly we do not find that the overall shaping of the poem emphasizes the argument or content. Sociolinguistics Language is not a neutral medium but comes with the contexts, ideologies and social intentions of its speakers written in. Words are living entities, things which are constantly being employed and only half taken over: carrying opinions, assertions, beliefs, information, emotions and intentions of others, which we partially accept and modify. In this sense speech is dialogic, has an internal polemic, and Bakhtins insights into the multi-layered nature of language (heteroglossia) can be extended to poetry. {11} Much of Postmodernist writing tries to be very unliterary, incorporating the raw material of everyday speech and writing into its creations. This poem seems rather different, a somewhat remote tone and elevated diction applying throughout. Let us see whats achieved by grouping under the various inflections of the speaking voice. * urgently confidential But, as youd expect, cliffs higher, of course, that they become attentive or we do * obsessively repetitious flurrying the grit, lifting the pebbles, flinging them Burdensome, underwritten overcast and glinting, obdurate * over-clever silicate of tough lives  distant and intricate constructing these webs of buildings distracted and/or light-headed except that these do not know it at least do not seem to with the blue airiness spinning around calling at random like frail relations * melancholic and/or reflective some trick of the light or weather will dress them as friends pleading and flailing and fill with placid but unbearable melodies. The exercise hardly provides revelation. Heteroglossia is an interweaving of voices, moreover, not shifts of tone or reference. And yet there is something very odd about the opening line. Why should we expect the buildings to be very impatient? This is more than the orators trick of attracting attention, since the animate nature of buildings and their constituents is referred to throughout the poem. To be more exact, the attitude of the inhabitants — observers, bureaucrats, architects — to the buildings is developed by the poem, and is paralleled by the tone. But why the confidential and repetitious attitude at the beginning. Why should we be buttonholed in this manner? Why the But, which seems to point to an earlier conversation, and the urgency with which that earlier conversation is being refuted or covered up? Because the blame for something is being shifted to the buildings. What error has been committed we do not know, but in mitigation we are shown the effect of the buildings on other inhabitants. Or perhaps we are. In fact the whirring bureaucrats seem to grow out of the fabric of buildings, and we do not really know if the we, constructing these webs of buildings is meant literally or metaphorically. The poems title suggests literally, but perhaps these constructions are only of the mind: sections 17, 20-29, 32 and 34 refer to attitudes rather than actions, and there is an ethereal or otherworldly atmosphere to the later section of the poem. So we return to heteroglossia, which is not simply borrowed voices, but involves an internal polemic, {12} that private dialogue we conduct between our private thoughts and their acceptable public expression. The dialogue is surely here between the brute physicality of a nature made overpoweringly real and the fail brevity of human lives. That physicality is threatening and unnerving. If the we of the later section of the poem is indeed architects then that physicality is harnessed to practical ends. If the constructing is purely mental then the treatment is through attitudes, mindsets, philosophies. But in neither case does it emasculate the energy of the physical world. Architects may leave monuments behind them, but they are also imprisoned in those monuments (us in deep hinterlands) and hearing all the time the homesick voice of their constituents. Conclusions: Suggested Improvements The greatest difficulty lies in the poems structure. An pentameter form has been used to give a superficial unity, but this wrenches the rhythm, obscures the sound patterns and does nothing for the argument. If recast in sections defined by rhythm and sound pattern the form is too irregular to have artistic autonomy. A return could be made to the eighteenth century Pindaric ode in strict metre and rhyme, but would require extensive and skilful rewriting, and probably appear artificial. A prose poem might be the answer, but the rhythms would need to be more fluid and subtly syncopated. Otherwise, blank verse should be attempted, and the metre adjusted accordingly. The internal polemic is a valuable dimension of the poem, but more could be done to make the voices distinct. http://www. textetc. com/criticism/stylistics. html1. On StylisticsIs cognitive stylistics the future of stylistics? To answer this question in the essay that follows, I will briefly discuss Elena Semino and Jonathan Culpeper’s Cognitive Stylistics (2003), Paul Simpson’s Stylistics (2004), and a recent essay by Michael Burke (2005). However, because questions are like trains – one may hide another – any discussion of the future of stylistics raises intractable questions about stylistics itself. French students of stylistics, for example, will come across definitions of the discipline like the following. According to Brigitte Buffard-Moret, â€Å"si les definitions de [la stylistique] – que certains refusent de considerer comme une scien